Fractional calculus extends the classical concepts of differentiation and integration to non-integer orders, providing a sophisticated framework for modelling memory and hereditary effects in complex ...

Calculus of variations establishes a framework to determine the extrema of functionals—mappings from functions to real numbers—which has been pivotal in elucidating natural principles such as the ...

In mathematical calculus, integration and differentiation are two of the most interesting concepts. Both of these concepts are concerned with how things change over time. Since every material object ...